Agriculture Important Topics for UPSC CSE Prelims
Major Crops — Agro-Climatic Requirements
Rice: Tropical/subtropical; 100–200 cm rainfall; clayey/waterlogged soil; high temperature (22–32°C); major states — West Bengal, Punjab, UP, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Wheat: Temperate; 50–75 cm rainfall; cool growing season, warm dry harvest; well-drained loamy soil; major states — UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP, Rajasthan
Maize: Warm climate; 50–100 cm rainfall; fertile, well-drained soil; major states — Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, MP; used for food, feed, starch, ethanol
Sorghum (Jowar): Warm, semi-arid; 45–100 cm rainfall; black/red soil; drought-tolerant; Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan
Pearl Millet (Bajra): Arid/semi-arid; 25–60 cm rainfall; sandy soil; extreme heat-tolerant; Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, UP
Finger Millet (Ragi): Warm, humid; red loamy soil; Karnataka (largest producer), Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh; high calcium content
Pulses
Chana (Chickpea): Cool dry season; 30–50 cm rainfall; sandy loam; nitrogen-fixing; major states — MP, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, UP; India = world's largest producer and consumer
Arhar/Tur (Pigeon Pea): Warm; 60–100 cm rainfall; sandy loam; deep roots (drought-tolerant); UP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
Moong (Green Gram): Warm; 50–75 cm; sandy loam; short duration (60–75 days); Zaid crop; UP, Rajasthan, Maharashtra
Masoor (Red Lentil): Cool; 40–60 cm; well-drained loamy; UP, MP, Bihar, West Bengal
Oilseeds
Groundnut: Warm; 50–75 cm rainfall; sandy loam (well-drained); Gujarat (largest), Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan; both Kharif and Rabi
Mustard/Rapeseed: Cool; 25–60 cm; loamy; Rabi crop; Rajasthan (largest), Haryana, UP, MP; India 2nd largest producer globally
Soybean: Warm; 60–100 cm; well-drained clay loam; Kharif; MP (largest — 'Soya capital'), Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Sunflower: Warm, short-day plant; Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra; high oleic acid varieties
Sesame (Til): Warm; 50–75 cm; well-drained sandy loam; Gujarat, Rajasthan, West Bengal
Commercial Crops
Cotton: Warm; 50–100 cm rainfall; black cotton soil (regur) — retains moisture; frost-free 200+ days; Gujarat (largest), Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra, Punjab
Sugarcane: Tropical/subtropical; 100–150 cm rainfall OR irrigation; fertile alluvial soil; UP (largest — 40%+ production), Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Tea: Humid; 150–300 cm rainfall (well-distributed); acidic, well-drained hill soil; temperature 20–30°C; Assam (52%), West Bengal (Darjeeling), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris), Kerala
Coffee: Warm; 150–250 cm rainfall; well-drained hill/forest soil; shade-grown; Karnataka (70% — Coorg, Chikmagalur), Kerala, Tamil Nadu; Arabica (milder) vs. Robusta (stronger)
Jute: Tropical; 150–200 cm; alluvial soil; warm+humid; West Bengal (80%), Bihar, Assam; 'Golden Fibre'; India = world's largest producer
Rubber: Tropical; 200–300 cm; laterite soil; Kerala (90%), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, NE India; India = 4th largest producer
Tobacco: Warm; 60–100 cm; well-drained sandy loam; Andhra Pradesh (largest), Gujarat, Karnataka
Horticulture
Fruits: Mango — UP, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (Alphonso); Banana — Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat; Apple — J&K (Sopore), Himachal Pradesh (Shimla); Grapes — Maharashtra (Nashik); Pineapple — Meghalaya, Assam
Vegetables: Potato — UP, West Bengal, Bihar; Tomato — Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra; Onion — Maharashtra (Nashik), MP, Karnataka; Cauliflower — UP, Bihar, West Bengal
Spices: Pepper — Kerala ('Black Gold'); Cardamom — Kerala, Karnataka; Chilli — Andhra Pradesh (Guntur), Rajasthan; Turmeric — Telangana, AP, Tamil Nadu; Ginger — Karnataka, Kerala
India's Horticulture: 2nd largest producer of fruits and vegetables globally; National Horticulture Mission (NHM) and NHB for promotion
Kharif, Rabi & Zaid Classification
Kharif (June–October): Sown with SW monsoon onset; harvested October–November; rice, maize, cotton, soybean, groundnut, bajra, jowar, arhar, moong, sugarcane
Rabi (October–March): Sown in winter; harvested March–April; requires cool temperature + irrigation/western disturbances; wheat, barley, mustard, gram, potato, peas, lentils
Zaid (March–June): Short-duration summer crops between Rabi and Kharif; watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, bitter gourd, moong, vegetables
Double/Triple Cropping: Punjab/Haryana achieve >180% cropping intensity due to irrigation; soil exhaustion concern
State-wise Leading Producers
Rice: West Bengal > Punjab > UP > Bihar > Andhra Pradesh
Wheat: UP > Punjab > Haryana > MP > Rajasthan
Cotton: Gujarat > Maharashtra > Telangana > Andhra Pradesh > Haryana
Sugarcane: UP > Maharashtra > Karnataka > Tamil Nadu
Tea: Assam > West Bengal > Tamil Nadu > Kerala
Pulses: MP > Maharashtra > Rajasthan > UP > Karnataka
Millets: Rajasthan (bajra) > Karnataka (ragi) > Maharashtra (jowar) > Gujarat
Millets & Nutritional Crops
Millet Types: Sorghum/Jowar, Pearl Millet/Bajra, Finger Millet/Ragi, Foxtail Millet/Kangni, Kodo, Barnyard, Little Millet — collectively called 'Nutri-Cereals' by GoI
Nutritional Value: High dietary fibre, protein (8–12%), gluten-free; rich in iron (ragi), calcium (ragi — 344mg/100g), zinc, B vitamins; low glycaemic index — suitable for diabetics
Government Initiatives: India proposed and UN declared International Year of Millets 2023; PM-POSHAN (mid-day meals); inclusion in PDS; Odisha Millets Mission; Millet Mission (NFSM)
Export & Market: Global millet exports growing; Indian startups — True Elements, Slurrp Farm, Aashirvaad (ITC); value-added products (millet cookies, pasta, flour)
Climate Resilience: Millets require 40% less water than rice; drought and heat tolerant; suited for dryland farming in Rajasthan, Deccan, NE India
Import–Export Trends
Top Agricultural Exports: Non-basmati rice (~$6B), Basmati rice (~$5B), Spices (~$4B), Sugar (~$3B), Cotton (~$2B), Marine products, Buffalo meat
Top Agricultural Imports: Edible oils (~$12B — palm oil from Indonesia/Malaysia), Pulses (~$3B — Canada, Australia, Myanmar), Cashew ($1B), Apples ($0.5B — USA, Turkey)
Key Export Destinations: Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran, USA; ASEAN for rice
Export Restrictions: India imposed wheat export ban (2022) and rice export ban on non-basmati white rice (2023) to control domestic prices — impacted global food markets
Global Supply Chain Impact: Black Sea Grain Deal collapse (2023) → global wheat/sunflower oil prices spiked → pressure on India to export; India balanced domestic vs. global obligations
Sustainable Agriculture and Farming Practices
Sustainable Farming Methods
Organic Farming: No synthetic pesticides/fertilizers; uses compost, green manure, biofertilizers; Sikkim — world's first 100% organic state; Kerala, NE India, Uttarakhand promoting organic corridors
Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF): Developed by Subhash Palekar; uses only cow dung (Jeevamrutha), cow urine, local seeds, mulching; Andhra Pradesh — largest program (~600,000 farmers); no external input cost
Natural Farming: Broader than ZBNF; NITI Aayog-promoted; Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (BPKP) — sub-scheme under Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)
Agroforestry: Trees + crops/livestock on same land; poplar + wheat (Punjab), eucalyptus + groundnut (AP); benefits — carbon sequestration, biodiversity, additional income; National Agroforestry Policy (2014)
Crop Rotation: Alternating crops to restore soil nutrients; legumes (fix nitrogen) → cereals; rice–wheat rotation (Punjab) causing soil exhaustion — diversification needed
Mixed/Intercropping: Growing multiple crops together; reduces pest pressure, improves land use efficiency; e.g., sorghum + pigeon pea, maize + soybean
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combines biological (neem oil, pheromone traps, Trichoderma), cultural, mechanical, and chemical methods as last resort; reduces pesticide load
Biofertilizers: Rhizobium (legumes), Azotobacter, Blue-Green Algae (rice paddies), Mycorrhiza; promoted under National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
Water-Efficient Agriculture
Micro-Irrigation: Drip (delivers water at roots — 30–50% water saving) and Sprinkler systems; Israel model adopted in India; PMKSY — Per Drop More Crop component
PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana): Har Khet Ko Pani (irrigation to every field) + More Crop Per Drop (efficiency) + Watershed Development; covers 76 priority irrigation projects
Rainwater Harvesting in Agriculture: Farm ponds (Telangana Mission Kakatiya), check dams (Gujarat Saurashtra model — Sardar Patel Participatory Water Conservation Programme)
Direct Seeded Rice (DSR): Seeds broadcast directly without nursery transplanting; saves 25–30% water, reduces labour; Punjab promoting to cut paddy water use
Laser Land Leveling: Precision leveling using GPS-guided laser equipment; 20–25% water saving; uniform germination; promoted in Punjab, Haryana, UP
SRI (System of Rice Intensification): Fewer seedlings, wider spacing, less water, more yield; developed in Madagascar; India promoting in eastern states
Watershed Development: Integrated land-water management in rainfed areas; IWMP (Integrated Watershed Management Programme) — PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana Watershed component
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)
Definition: Agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, builds resilience, reduces GHG emissions, and enhances food security — FAO framework; India's NAPCC (National Action Plan on Climate Change) includes NMSA
Resilient/Climate-Tolerant Varieties: Drought-tolerant maize (DTMA), flood-tolerant rice (Swarna-Sub1 — survives 2 weeks submergence), heat-tolerant wheat (HD-3226, DBW187), salt-tolerant rice (CST varieties)
Agro-Met Advisory Services: IMD's Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS); Kisan Suvidha app; weather-based crop insurance; 130+ Agro-Meteorological Field Units (AMFUs)
Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture: Agroforestry (trees store carbon), reduced/zero tillage (preserves soil carbon), cover crops, rice paddy management (alternate wetting and drying — reduces methane)
Livestock Management: Silvopasture (trees + pasture); improved feed (Leucaena) reduces enteric methane; National Livestock Mission for breed improvement
Soil Health Card Scheme: Launched 2015; tests 12 parameters; 22 crore+ cards issued; promotes balanced fertilizer use; soil health management
Biofortification: Breeding crops with higher nutrients — Iron-biofortified pearl millet (Dhan Shakti), Zinc-biofortified wheat (MACS6222); HarvestPlus program; reduces hidden hunger
Agri-Tech & Innovation
Drones in Agriculture: Pesticide/fertilizer spraying drones; SMAM scheme subsidises drones; Namo Drone Didi scheme trains women SHG members as drone pilots; 15,000 drones to CHCs
AI & Precision Agriculture: Intello Labs (AI for produce quality), CropIn (farm management platform), satellite-based crop monitoring (FASAL by ICAR); AI for pest prediction
Digital Agriculture Mission (2021–25): Digital ecosystem for farmers; Agristack (farmer database); PM-KISAN data integration; unified farmer service platform
AgriStack / Farmers' Database: Unified farmer ID linked to land records, crop data, credit history; enables targeted delivery of subsidies, insurance, advisories
FPOs (Farmer Producer Organisations): Collectives of farmers for bargaining power; GoI target — 10,000 new FPOs by 2027–28; SFAC and NABARD support; market linkage focus
e-NAM (National Agriculture Market): Online trading platform linking 1000+ mandis across 22 states; price discovery, reduced intermediation; integration with FPOs and warehouses
Agricultural Pricing, Marketing & Food Management
Minimum Support Price (MSP)
MSP Coverage: 23 crops — 7 cereals (rice, wheat, maize, jowar, bajra, ragi, barley), 5 pulses (chana, arhar, moong, urad, masoor), 7 oilseeds (groundnut, rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, sesame, safflower, nigerseed), 4 commercial (cotton, sugarcane via FRP, copra, jute)
Calculation Method: CACP (Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices) recommends based on A2+FL (actual paid-out cost + family labour), C2 (comprehensive cost including land rent) — Swaminathan formula demands C2+50%
Procurement Agencies: FCI (Food Corporation of India) for wheat/rice; NAFED for pulses/oilseeds; state agencies (Pungrain — Punjab, Hafed — Haryana); CCI for cotton
Issues with MSP: Effective procurement only for wheat and rice (Punjab/Haryana belt); other crops — wide gap between MSP and market price; MSP not legally guaranteed (demand by farm unions)
MSP vs. Legal Guarantee: Farm Laws 2020 (repealed 2021) controversy; Shanta Kumar Committee (2015) recommended MSP reform; Swaminathan Commission recommendations pending full implementation
Sugarcane Pricing
FRP (Fair and Remunerative Price): Set by Central Government for sugarcane; based on recovery rate of sugar; CACP recommends; mills must pay within 14 days
SAP (State Advised Price): Set by UP, Punjab, Uttarakhand above FRP; UP SAP often 20–30% above FRP; leads to mill arrears problem
Rangarajan Committee (2012): Recommended revenue sharing formula — 70% of revenue from sugar + 70% of by-products revenue to farmers; not fully adopted
Agricultural Marketing & APMC
APMC Act: Agricultural Produce Market Committee; states regulate mandis; traders need licenses; market fees (1–2%); yards control wholesale trade; criticism — cartelization, high mandi charges, poor infrastructure
e-NAM (National Agriculture Market): Launched 2016; connects 1,000+ APMC mandis; online bidding; single-point levy; 1.76 crore+ farmers registered; challenges — poor internet, quality assaying, transport
Model APMC Act / Model Contract Farming Act: States encouraged to adopt; allow private markets, direct farmer-buyer deals, warehouse-based trading
Farm Laws 2020 (Repealed): Three laws — Farmers' Produce Trade and Commerce Act, Farmers Agreement on Price Assurance Act, Essential Commodities Amendment Act; repealed November 2021 after farmer protests
Gramin Haats: 22,000 rural periodical markets upgraded under PMGSY/MGNREGS; linked to e-NAM; direct retail by farmers
Contract Farming: Farmers grow for buyers (agri-firms/exporters) at pre-agreed price; PepsiCo (potato for chips), ITC (wheat for Aashirvaad); reduces price risk; concerns about power imbalance
Food Management System
FCI (Food Corporation of India): Procures, stores, and distributes food grains; maintains buffer stocks and strategic reserves; largest food grain handler in world
Buffer Stock Norms: Minimum stocks of wheat + rice to be maintained quarterly; operational stock (for PDS offtake) + strategic reserve (for price stabilization/emergency)
NFSA 2013 (National Food Security Act): 75% rural + 50% urban population covered (67% total); Priority Households — 5 kg/person/month at Rs. 1-2-3/kg; AAY (Antyodaya Anna Yojana) — 35 kg/month at lowest price
PMGKAY: Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana — free 5 kg grain/month; launched COVID-19 (April 2020); extended multiple times; merged with NFSA from January 2023 (free grains under NFSA)
One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC): Portability of PDS entitlement across states; enables migrant workers to access ration anywhere; implemented in all states/UTs
Storage Infrastructure: CWC (Central Warehousing Corporation) and SWCs (State Warehousing Corporations); silos (modern metal/concrete); issues — storage losses (~5–10%), rodents, moisture, poor rural storage
Export/Import Management: MEP (Minimum Export Price) to prevent cheap exports; export bans (wheat 2022, rice 2023); import duties on edible oils adjusted to protect farmers
Seed Policy & GM Crops
Seed Regulation: Seeds Act 1966 (under revision); Central Seed Certification Board; Seed Testing Laboratories; varietal notification under PPV&FR Act (Plant Varieties Protection & Farmers' Rights Act 2001)
GM Crops in India: Bt Cotton — only approved GM crop (Bollgard-I and II); Bt Brinjal — approved by GEAC (2010), moratorium by MoEF; HT Mustard (DMH-11) — GEAC approved 2022, awaiting environment ministry clearance; Golden Rice — trials ongoing
GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee): Under MoEF&CC; apex body for GM crop approvals; recent controversies over HT mustard
Seed Subsidy: State governments distribute certified seeds at subsidized rates; Tamil Nadu free seed distribution to small/marginal farmers; Seed Village Programme — farmers trained as seed producers
PPV&FR Act 2001: Protects plant breeders' rights AND farmers' rights (can save/use/sell farm-saved seeds, not branded ones); UPOV convention influence; sui generis system
Fertilizer Policy
Subsidy Structure: Urea — under Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) excluded; price controlled by government, subsidy paid to manufacturer; Neem-coated urea mandatory (reduces diversion); P&K fertilizers under NBS (fixed per-nutrient subsidy)
DBT in Fertilizers: Direct Benefit Transfer — subsidy paid to manufacturers after sale to farmers through PoS machines at retailers; farmer buys at MRP, subsidy reconciled
Fertilizer Imbalance: Ideal NPK ratio = 4:2:1; actual ~8:3:1 (urea overuse); soil degradation — salinity, reduced organic carbon, micronutrient deficiency
PM-PRANAM Scheme: PM Programme for Restoration, Awareness, Nourishment and Amelioration of Mother Earth; incentivizes states to reduce chemical fertilizer use; savings shared with states
Nano Fertilizers: Nano Urea (IFFCO) — liquid urea in nano form, 500ml bottle = 1 bag of urea; cost-effective, reduces soil pollution; Nano DAP also launched; being rolled out nationally
Soil Health & Carbon: Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) declining in Indian soils; NMSA promotes carbon farming; carbon credits from regenerative agriculture gaining attention
WTO & Agricultural Trade
Agreement on Agriculture (AoA): WTO agreement governing agricultural subsidies and trade; three pillars — domestic support, market access, export subsidies
Subsidy Boxes: Green Box (minimally trade-distorting — research, food security stockholding, direct income support decoupled from production); Amber Box (trade-distorting input subsidies — subject to reduction commitments); Blue Box (production-limiting payments)
India's Position: India's food security stockholding (MSP procurement) treated as Amber Box; India argues it distorts trade less than developed country subsidies; demands permanent solution for public stockholding (PSH)
Peace Clause (Bali 2013): Interim protection — countries not challengeable for exceeding subsidy limits if for food security; extended indefinitely at Nairobi 2015; India pushes for permanent solution
Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM): Developing countries demand right to raise tariffs temporarily when import surge threatens farmers; India advocates for SSM in WTO negotiations
India at WTO Agriculture Negotiations: Demands: (1) permanent PSH solution, (2) elimination of developed-country export subsidies, (3) SSM for developing countries, (4) cotton subsidies by USA/EU reduced
Current Affairs
Millets Global Demand: Post-IYM 2023 momentum; 150+ countries promoting millets; India's millet exports grew 30%+ in 2023–24; value-added millet products growing in urban markets
Agri-Tech Startups: Drone spraying (Aarav Unmanned Systems, Garuda Aerospace); AI soil testing (SatSure, CropIn); input delivery platforms (DeHaat, AgroStar); agri-fintech (Samunnati)
Climate Adaptation Varieties: Heat-tolerant wheat HD-3226 and DBW187 for climate change resilience; Swarna-Sub1 (flood-tolerant rice) widely adopted in Bihar, Odisha, UP; drought-tolerant pulses
Black Sea Grain Deal (2022–23): Ukraine–Russia war disrupted wheat, sunflower oil exports; global food prices spiked; India wheat export ban (May 2022) drew international criticism; deal collapsed July 2023
PM-KISAN & DBT: Rs. 6,000/year to farmer families in 3 instalments; 11 crore+ beneficiaries; linked to Aadhaar; model for targeted agricultural support
Farmer Income Doubling: Target (by 2022, extended); Dalwai Committee report on strategies — diversification, value addition, improved MSP, reduced cost of cultivation, non-farm income
Agricultural Credit: Kisan Credit Card (KCC) — flexible revolving credit; Rs. 7 lakh crore target; interest subvention at 7% (4% effective with prompt repayment); NABARD refinancing role
